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Persepolis means Persian City and is situated 58 Kilometers from Shiraz. Persepolis was developed mainly by Dariush I The Great (~500 B.C.) and turned to a modern city with running tab water, drainage system, postal service and highways connecting it to other cities of the Persian empire. (There is another theory saying that Cyrus The Great chose the site of Persepolis, which was originally named Parsa, and the works started in 518 BC by Dariush I.) If the traveler to Iran visited only the provinces of Khuzestan and Fars, he/she would have seen what is virtually the essential heart of Iranian history. Fars (ancient Parsa) - homeland of the Persians and the source of the name so often given to the entire land -contains not only an enormous number of prehistoric sites with nearly 1,000 identified in the Marv Dasht alone, but the major Achaemenian and Sassanian remains in the country. There was probably a sizeable settlement on the site of Shiraz in the prehistoric period and cuneiform records from the great ceremonial capital of Persepolis, some 58 km. to the north, show that it was a significant township in Achaemenian times. As a city, however, it was founded in A.D. 684, after the Arab armies conquered the Sassanian provincial capital of Istakhr near Persepolis. Shiraz-Isfahan Highway approaches Persepolis or Takht-e Jamshid as it is known locally, from the west and turns sharp towards the north at the main staircase and the Gate of All Nations. The mountains behind Persepolis are in the east. Persepolis was first scientifically excavated under the direction of Ernst Herzfeld, and later by E.F. Schmidt on behalf of the Oriental Institute of Chicago, from 1931 to 1939. In the 1940s the excavations were continued by the Iranian Archaeological Service, directed first by Andre Godard and later by Ali Sami. More recently, the excavations of the Iranian Archaeological Service have been renewed under the direction of Mr. A. Tajvidi, while, in cooperation with the Iranian authorities. Giuseppe and Ann Britt Tilia of the Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente (ISMEO) have been patiently restoring the damaged structure. It is perhaps possible that it was Cambyses II, the son of Cyrus the Great, who chose the rock outcrops at the foot of Kuh-e Rahmat as the site of a new dynastic home. According to Professor Pope, the complex of buildings formed a ritual city whose very existence was kept secret from the outside world at a time when the glories of the other, secular, Achaemenian capitals of Susa, Babylon and Ecbatana were well known. But in fact it must be by some strange accident of history that Persepolis - know as Parsa to the Achaemenians - was never mentioned in foreign records, for it was here after all that representatives of all the varied peoples of the empire gathered to pay homage, and bring tribute, to the King of Kings, probably each spring, at the time of the ancient Nowrooz (New Year) festival. It was Alexander who destroyed the magnificent palaces, not long before the death of the last of the Achaemenians, Dariush III, in 330 B.C. A complex system of drainage and water channels cut into the foundations of the terrace suggests that the entire layout of the complex was designed in detail before any other construction work was begun. The palaces on the platform are arranged in four separate levels, each being two meters higher. On entering the platform one stands on the level reserved for the delegations. The Apadana palace and surrounding structures for the nobles are higher. The royal quarter is again a step higher. The storage rooms and administrative offices on the back are the lowest. The royal quarter is visible from all areas and should therefore be used as reference. The Staircase Access to the Platform is by a monumental double-ramped ceremonial staircase, carved from massive blocks of stone (five steps are carved from a single block 7m. long), and shallow enough for the most important guests to be able to take their horses up. The stairs were closed at the top with gates whose hinges fitted into sockets in the floor, seen at the top of the northern flight. The arrival of the delegations was announced by trumpeters who stood at the top of the staircase in front of the Gate of All Nations. Portions of the bronze trumpets are preserved in the Persepolis Museum. The Persian and Median ushers received the delegations, led them through the Gate of All Nations to the Hundred Column Palace to the presence of the king. The Gate of All Nations At the head of staircase is the Gateway of All Nations, built by Xerxes I and guarded at east and west by vast bull-like colossi closely akin to the bull figures of Assyria. Above the bulls, on the inner side of the Gateway is a three-language cuneiform inscription in the main languages of the realm: Persian, Babylonian and Elamite. It says: Great God is Ahuramazda, who has created this Earth, who has created the heaven, who has created man, who has created good things for man, who has made Xerxes King, sole King of many, sole Commander of many. I am Xerxes, Great King, King of Kings, King of lands, King of many races, King of this earth reaching even far off, son of Dariush the King, the Achaemenian. King Xerxes says: By the grace of Ahuramazda I constructed this Gateway of All Nations. Many other beautiful things were constructed in Persia. I constructed them and my father constructed them. Everything we have constructed which looks beautiful we have constructed by the grace of Ahuramazda. King Xerxes says: May Ahuramazda protect me and my kingdom and whatever is constructed by me as well as what has been constructed by may father. Within the entrance hall which was originally roofed, well-polished black marble benches line the walls. The roof was supported by four columns. The capitals are stylized representations of pendants of date palm leaves and represent therefore the trunks of holy palms. Everybody Participating in the festivities entered through this gate. The nobles left through the southern doorway facing the Apadana palace, the delegations through the eastern gate which faces the mountain- The winged man-bull figures are only along the path of the Subject Nations. The narrow roadway connects the Gate of All Nations to a similar palace with four columns which probably was used as a waiting hall for the delegations before they entered the Hundred Column Palace. This roadway was walled off with a high double retaining wall of mud-brick, which obstructed any view of the Apadana and the private palaces. Only the lower remnants of this wall are preserved. If one can imagine these walls to reach the level of the head of the man-bull figure, then the massiveness and power of the structure of the Gate of All Nations will become more apparent, heightened by a narrow enclosure. Guard rooms and storage areas were on both sides of the road. A recess to the left contains two partially restored griffin capitals. These were never put on top of columns and remained in situ for unknown reasons, possibly intended for buildings yet unfinished when Alexander attacked. In a pit towards the mountain, in front of the wail separating the Apadana from the Hundred Column Palace court, rests a magnificent lion capital. Nobody knows how it got there and why it is below ground level. The function of this capital was to cradle the main roof beam. The columns were probably raised with the help of earth ramps, up which the stones were pulled to the desired height and positioned. More earth was added and the ramp heightened, until the capital could be positioned on top of the column. The earth was then dug away. The roof was then carried by the capitals in a fashion as illustrated on the royal tombs at Naqsh-e Rustam or behind Persepolis. A wooden replica has been constructed in the portico of the Persepolis Museum. A heavy cedarwood crossbeam was laid across the saddle between the two heads, protruding about 1 m. on each side. Two long beams were laid on each side, connecting two neighboring columns. The inter-space was covered with secondary wood beams, finally matting and a thick layer of earth was rolled over this construction, to form the mud roof. Lateral stabilizers fitted between the lion's ears. Everything was brightly painted. When Alexander burned Persepolis the Apadana roof fell eastwards, covering and preserving the eastern reliefs for 2100 years. Dariush the Great's Hall of Audience (Apadana) Persian and Median nobles attending the ceremonies may have been able to leave the Gateway of All Nations by its third, southern exit, opposite the most fascinating of all the palaces of Persepolis, Dariush the Great's Hall of Audience, or Apadana. Built on a stone terrace, it was completed by Xerxes during the early years of his reign. Two inscribed tablets in gold and silver that were found in stone boxes in the corners of the northern wall of the Apadana mark the foundation of the building by Dariush. Both are in the Tehran Museum. Crossing the open area before the palace, the nobles would have mounted the double staircase in the middle of the northern wall, which like the better-preserved eastern wall, is covered with bas-reliefs showing in almost photographic detail the appearance of the nobles, foreign dignitaries and tributary nations in their long processions to the court of the great king. The figures are duplicated, the northern and eastern walls each portraying the right or left side views of the same human beings and animals. Studying these and other realistic bas-reliefs at Persepolis one can well visualize the colorful and impressive scene at the twice-yearly festivals when representatives of the subject nations ranging from the Greek islands to India, and from central Asia to Ethiopia, brought their gifts, the latter including exotic creatures such as giraffes from Abyssinia, two-humped camels from Bactria in Afghanistan, and lion cubs from Elam together with golden ornaments, weapons, fine horses and still other tokens of homage. The procession of the nobility would have entered the columned porch at the top of the stairs and then wound through the great hall, which is similar in design to the Apadana at Susa and large enough to accommodate some 10,000 people according to Herzfeld. They would have left through the eastern portico and gone down the second double winged staircase to turn right to the Tripylon or Central palace. From this they would have entered the adjoining Hall of One Hundred Columns from its southern side, and thus would face the visiting dignitaries as they entered at the opposite end of the Hall. The original magnificence of these buildings can hardly be imagined even from the impressive portions still standing, for the great wooden doors were covered by delicately patterned gold plates; heavy curtains of gold lace kept out the droughts; glazed and terracotta tiles in blue, yellow and pink, portraying lions, bulls and plants, together with paintings on plaster, decorated the upper walls. Traces of color have also been found on some column bases and stone walls and on the bas-reliefs of the staircases - the inside of the throat of a fallen lion capital near the eastern portico of the Apadana still shows distinct red coloring. The southern doors lead to Dariush the Great's private palace, the supposed banqueting hall, and behind this the palace of the crown prince, Xerxes. Of the original fluted and tapered 36 columns of the Apadana, only thirteen remain upright today, and of these most have lost their double bull protomes. The slender columns are nearly 20 m. tall. Another 36 columns on round bases supported the three porticos on east, west and north. The ceiling beams of cedar, ebony and teak were gold-plated, inlaid with ivory and precious metals. The Apadana Staircase It is well worthwhile to spend all available time studying the Eastern staircase of the Apadana. Better preserved, the reliefs are full of religious symbolism as well as being a record in stone of the New Year's procession. The staircase is best divided into three portions, a central, a northern and a southern panel. The northern panel shows the reception of the Persians and Medes, the more interesting southern panel the reception of the subject nations. Recent restoration of the palace showed that the original plan and layout was of much more primitive type, the monumental double staircase being added later. It is still undecided if the Apadana was not built over an older cyclopean platform of the type erected by the early Achaemenian kings in Masjid-e Solaiman. Originally, the Private Reception Hall and its staircase would have dominated the court. Now they are squeezed in by the Apadana staircase. Starting at the northern end of the center staircase, (the right corner of the central staircase facing the Apadana) and moving to the north towards the end of the lateral staircase, to observe the New Year's reception as it occurred. The parade was led off by the imperial guards, which are represented in all three tiers. These are the Immortals, whose number was never permitted to fall below the appointed 10,000. Any losses were immediately replaced. The soldiers wear no helmets and are equipped with quivers and spears, which are weighted with a pummel to act as balance when thrown, resting on the feet of the soldiers. They are followed in the upper tier by the royal procession, in the lower two by the Persian (feather headdress) and Median (round caps) nobles. The upper tier depicts the personal valets of the king, each carrier preceded by an appointed Median official. The royal whisk is brought, the horseblankets and the royal footstool, which is carried with the aid of a leather ribbon buttoned over the shoulder of the valet. The stool itself consists of a reed matting strung over a frame of intricately carved wood with animal hooves as legs. This footstool was carried in the procession, since the king was not supposed to touch ground. The stone of the relief was damaged and the feet of the stool carrier show repair by an insertion fastened with iron clamps. Next comes the Median chief of the stables, leading the procession of royal horses. The officials of the court are recognized by their staffs, the length of the staff indicating the rank. the horses are very beautifully carved, each one led by a groom. The tails and manes are artfully tied, the horse-bits of metal precisely worked. Similar bronze bits can be seen in the Persepolis museum, indicating the precision of the stone carving. The group ends with the Elamite chief of chariots, followed by a war - and a ceremonial -chariot. The chariots were only valuable in warfare or hunts in the plain and desert. Therefore the Elamites are in charge. The horses pulling the chariots are smaller, lighter and of a different breed than the Median warhorses preceding them. The chariots have wheels with 12 spokes, indicating the 12 months of the year. The wheel is fastened with an artfully carved pin in the shape of a figure. (Some authors describe it as fertility goddess with ample breasts. Due to the damage by time and climate, it can't be confirmed.) The first chariot differs from the second by the frieze of lions along the edge of the carriage, indicating that it was a hunt or war chariot. The handle helped the warrior to steady himself when throwing the spear, the leather loop was used to facilitate the boarding and jumping off process during fast motion. The wheels are ribbed to steady the chariot. The lower two tiers show the nobles, Persians and Medes regularly alternating. The Persians' have fluted caps, the Medes have round fur caps with a tail still attached to the pelt. Some carry dispatch or bow cases, others pomegranate buds and flowers. There are subtle differences in the clothing, buttons and earrings, which may signify difference in office or rank. The nobles are relaxed, happy, chatting and not at all ceremonial. They are equals (as indicated by the equal level of heads) and allied in an inseparable bond as indicated by their holding of hands and meet the king, who is one of their race. The rows of soldiers are there to remind them that some have rebelled and supported the wrong pretender to the throne - Bardia. Dariush had to bring 9 rebellious satraps to heel before he could secure his kingship. His immortals were victorious. The civil war however Is a thing of the past, the king's position is clear, the crown prince is designated, so the nobles can relax. Dariush is obviously the most able of his tribe, worthy of kingship. Fertility symbols are everywhere in evidence. The entire crest of the staircase is adorned with ziggurat symbols. The rows are divided by the 12-petaled flowers, a symbol of sun and spring. The triangles are filled with trees of life full of seed and with palm trunks (some say papyrus). The pomegranate carried by the nobles in the procession is an old bisexual fertility symbol, since the bud resembles the penis of a child, the flower is used as a sign of female fertility and the fruit is round and full of seed. The stairs themselves are guarded by Persian soldiers, with fluted or feathered caps and the usual weapons. The Central Panel The central panel is of religious significance in that it shows Ahuramazda above all: A ring with wings symbolizing god, guarded by two griffins with human heads. Ahuramazda is usually shown as a man with crow's feet and eagle's wings. Lateral to it is again the stylized palm grove. Below Ahura Mazda are four guard soldiers, Persians and Medes. The Persians carry the typical circular indented shield. It is obvious that the shield is held in the left hand, the spear in the right. The lateral triangles show the New Year's symbol- the lion devouring the bull. This might be interpreted as the vigorous incoming new year replacing the old. However it has great mythological, astrological and practical importance. In 550 BC the astronomers of Persepolis could still see the constellation of Leo at the zenith, while Taurus (the pleiades regulus and canopus) was visible only a few degrees above the southern horizon, completely disappearing in the following days, to reappear only forty days later. This striking constellation occurred only once a year: The triumphant lion in the zenith with the bull escaping below the horizon marked the beginning of the agricultural activity after the winter. The inscription in the panels informs us that Dariush started this palace and Xerxes completed it and asks god to protect the land from famine, falsehood and earthquakes. The Southern Panel Twenty-three delegations from all lands arrive with their New Year's presents for the king, alternatingly ushered in by Persian and Median guides. The sequence of their arrival is not clear, except that the first delegation, Medes, lead the procession at the central staircase, while the Ethiopians are the last under the lateral balustrade. They either follow a sequence indicated by the horizontal rows separated by solar rosettes, or the vertical rows separated by trees of life. They might possibly be lined up in a snake line. Certainly they are not received in a random fashion, which would offend the whole concept of worldly and celestial order. Nothing, after all, in Persepolis is left unplanned. None of the possible arrangements is in agreement with the sequential list of satrapies on the king's inscriptions. The delegations may therefore be received in order of their incorporation into the empire, or in accordance with travel time necessary from their homeland to Persepolis, which is not necessarily related to distance alone. The arrangement of Assyrians. Lydians, Ionians, Babylonians, Egyptians and Ethiopians excludes any arrangement in sequence of military conquest. The delegations arrive in order of travel stages, in the sequence outlined by numbers in the attached. Herodotus confirms this assumption when he writes: "or nations they honor most their nearest neighbors, whom they esteem next to themselves. Those who live beyond these they honor in the second degree, and so with the remainder; the further they are removed, the less the esteem in which they hold them. The reason is, that they look upon themselves as greatly superior in all respects to the rest of mankind, regarding others as approaching to excellence in proportion as they dwell nearer to them; whence it comes to pass that those who are the furthest off must be the most degraded of mankind." ... He continues in saying: "And this is the order which the Persians also follow in their distribution of honor." Although Herodotus' text is full of inaccurate hearsay, it has been found very accurate in descriptions of habits and manners which he himself had opportunity to observe during his travels. He concludes his description of the habits of the Persians by stating: "Thus much I can declare of the Persians with entire certainty, from my actual knowledge." The donations brought by the delegations cannot be construed as taxes, since precise tax lists for the different provinces exist, listing entirely different items. They present the habit of bringing New Year's presents to the king to honor him, similarly as,we give presents for birthdays or at Christmas. It would not be conceivable that the Elamites pay their yearly taxes in lions. Horses, honor robes, artfully carved vessels, lions and many other things are however well suited as presents for a king. These gifts could possibly also be related to the presents brought to the Elamite ziggurat on the New Year's day in the ritual procession, asking god for favor and fertility in the year to come. Some sections of this panel are artistically more advanced than others while some are not polished or even completed. The details of dress and the characterization of animals is unusually excellent. Artistically one of the best is panel 8, the Cilicians with the two fat-tailed rams. This is a list of the 23 delegations and nations, carved on the Southern Panel of the Apadana Palace. Sagartians (16) Parthians (13) Egyptians (10) Aryans (7) Arachosians (4) Elamites (2) Medes (1) Sogdians (17) Gandharians (14) Scyths (11) Cilicians (8) Babylonians (5) Armenians (3) Indians (18) Bactrians (15) Lydians (12) Cappadocians (9) Assyrians (6) Thracians (19) Arabs (20) Drangianians (21) Somalis (22) Ethiopians (23) Medes: The largest delegation. Friendship rings and armlets, which might serve as ingots, are offered. These must be other than "Imperial Medes" who joined Cyrus to form the empire. They might have remained loyal to Astyages, when the majority of his troops defected and joined Cyrus. This would still give them honor, but put them in a class of tribute bearers. Elamites (Susians): Controlled by Persia at the foundation of empire. Teachers of the Persians, their language, was used for records and inscriptions. Their capital in Susa was one of the three permanent administrative and cultural centers of the empire. They bring lions and bows and arrows used by the king during his New Years prayer as depicted on the Royal Tombs. Persians adopted Elamite dress. (The Asiatic lion is now practically extinct except for several closely guarded areas in India. The last lion was found dead by geologist McQuillan close to the city of Behbahan in Fars in 1962.) Armenians: From Lakes Van, Urumiyeh, the southern Caucasian slopes. Related to the Urartians, master builders, teachers of the Medes, conquered by the Assyrian under Assurbanipal during his trek to Mount Ararat, the center of the region. Arachosians: Their headdress is that of (7), so that the two delegations are hard to tell apart. The pantaloons are still worn in the region between Parthia (13), Aria (7) and Arachosia (modern Baluchistan). At Alexander's conquest the area was much more fertile. Mongols destroyed the irrigation. Babylonians: Were conquered much later than either the Assyrians or Lydians. They bring a Brahma bull, cups, and a cloth of the type used as canopy over the throne of Darius as represented in the throne room scenes in the Private Reception Palace, the Hundred Column Palace and the Treasury. Assyrians and Phoenicians: Some believe these arc Lydians because of their similarity to (12). The lock behind their ear is still worn by orthodox Jews. The superb jewelry, vases are delight of photographers. Horses are much smaller than those from the highlands of Media: (3), (9) and (11). Aryans: Practically indistinguishable from the Arachosians (4). The last member bringing a lion skin over his back is incomplete. Aria was north of Arachosia, in the area of the city of Herat and Mashhad and on the mountain slopes of the northern rim of the Great Desert. Cilicians, (Sogdians): From southern Asia Minor, opposite Cyprus, bring two beautifully worked cups. The workmanship is superb and warrants detailed study. Cappadocians: Are members of the Median (1), Armenian (3) and Sagartian (16) groups and bring a horse and robes. Characteristic is the pin which holds the robe over the shoulder. Egyptians: Only the hemline remains, the body was destroyed by the fall of the Apadana roof during the gutting by Alexander. The dress is however so characteristic that all authors agree on their origin. Scyths: Mede guide. The pointed hats confirm Herodotus' description of the pointed-hat Scyths. They come from the steppe north of the Caucasus, the Ukraine and north of Sogdiana and consisted of numerous subtribes. They defeated Dariush. Lydians and lonians: Without hats, bring bolts of cloth, balls of yarn (or honey combs?) and cups of precious material, probably dyes. The Greeks cities and Lydia were administratively united with the capital in Sardis. Their dress is similar to (6). Parthians: Come from the steppe between the Caspian and the Aral Lake, which constitutes the present Turkmenistan. After the collapse of the Achaemenian empire they conquered all of Iran from Alexander's successors and governed for 440 years. Gandharians: They come from the area of the headwaters of the Indus river, between Kabul and Lahore, the western Punjab. Its old capital Taxila near Rawalpindi can be visited. They wear a hair-band as do their neighbors (15), (21) and (18). Bactrians: Come from the Oasis country along the upper reaches of the Oxus river and in northern Afghanistan. They bring vases of the same type as their northwestern neighbors Parthians. Their chief city was Balkh. Sagartians: Dress similar to (1), (3), (9) and bring similar gifts. Assume that they belong to the same general group and are the last to arrive because they live furthest away. Asia Minor opposite the Thracians, or somewhere along the Caucasus border or the Black Sea or, the central steppe next to the Bactrians. Sogdians: The eastern most group of Scyths and come from the region between the Oxus and Jaxartes rivers, the site of the city of Samarkand. Some believe they are Chora smians. Indians: These people come from a hot damp climate. They wear only a loincloth and sandals. They bring an ass, hatchets and wickerbaskets on a balancing rod. Sind is in the lower Indus valley. Thracians: They come from the land between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, which now forms Greece, Turkey and Bulgaria. They wear a Scythian cap which is pointed. Its form persisted to modern times and the Red Army of the time of the Russian Revolution until the Second World War used similar caps. Arabs: They wear sandals, a simple tunic with embroidered border and bring a dromedary and cloth of the type they themselves wear as presents. Administratively they belonged to Assyria-Phoenicia, but their travel time from the Hedjas at the Red Sea puts them close to the end of the procession. Drangianians (Zranka): Hardly any authors agree to the origin and homeland of this delegation. Some trace it to the region of Merv in Bactria, others to the province of Kerman in eastern Iran. The hair of the carriers is combed in Gandharan style (Delegation 14), they bring similar shields and spears and a bull, if of different breed. Their position at the end of the procession suggests an origin close to the borders of Achaemenian Iran. As suggested by Darius the Great: "Says Darius the King: This is the land I own, from the Scyths beyond the Sogdians to the Ethiopians, from Sind to Sardis (Lydia), which Ahuramazda the greatest of Gods has given to me." It is believed they come from the east of the empire, close to Gandhara and Sind. Somalis or libyans, People from punt (Putaya): There is great controversy as to the origin of this delegation. The members of the delegation wear animal skins and bring an African antelope (kudu) and a chariot. They are not negroid. Some authors believe that the chariot puts the delegation into Libya, since the Libyans were known for their excellence as charioteers. The antelope however and the animal-skin dress suggests an origin in Yemen or Somali land, the Egyptian Punt. Ethiopians or Nubians, (Kushiyans): The negroid people come the greatest distance and are the last delegation to be received. They bring a giraffe or an okapi, elephant tusks and a vase and are ushered by a Median guide. Tachara, Palace of Dariush The Tachara (meaning 'winter palace') of Darius-it is so called in the trilingual inscription on its southern door jambs-is on a platform about 2m. higher than the Apadana immediately to its north. This alone of all the other palaces on the platform has windows facing south from a portico with two rows of pillars. The original entrance to this small palace was by the two flights of steps on the south side. The palace was completed by Xerxes and a western staircases was added by Artaxerxes III, both staircases being ornamented with more bas-reliefs of tributaries and offerings. The contention of the later addition of the staircase is supported by the fact that a door was added on the frontside of the Tachara, which produces asymmetry of the hall of the palace. Also an unusual group of people is depicted on the central panel, Medians, Cilicians, Sogdians and another group which is too weathered for clear identification. All wear extremely fancy dress, distinctive from the wear on the Apadana staircase. This may be a change in fashion over a period of 200 years which is the difference between the carvings, or simply be a special ceremonial dress of these people who probably were Mithra worshipers and included in the regular cult for political reasons. The rest of the central panel shows the conventional New Year's symbols. Arachosians and Medes ascend the stairs with animals, covered bowls and skins with water or wine. The holiest shrines of the Zoroastrian Magi were in Lake Urumiyeh in Media and Lake Helmand in Arachosia and the servants seen on the staircases of the entire upper level arc really temple officials bringing the necessary implements for sacrifice and ceremony. Entering the palace one passes a door with royal guards and comes into a small guard room. The next door leads into the main hall of the palace, with an image of the king preventing "evil" from entering. The different doors show different representations of the same theme, which arc repeated in the Hundred Column Palace and the Museum. The "evil" is either shown as a bull-monster being killed by the king, or a composite figure of a winged bull-lion-raven-scorpion. The position of the king and beast are of significance and indicate the use of the rooms. It can also be argued that the "monsters" with which the king contends are really constellations and relate astrologically to dates on which the rooms were used. The door of the royal bath, to the left, shows the king coming cleaned and properly dressed for the ceremony, followed by two servants, one a eunuch with umbrella and flywhisk. The holes of the King's coat indicate the anchor points of precious metal objects. The king undoubtedly wore a crown, armlets and anklets. The beard was inlaid with precious or semi-precious stones; so were the eyes. The pattern of the cloth is still recognizable and should be compared with the colored tile on the museum wall. Flower motives are apparent. The lower seam of the coat shows a frieze of lions. The scratchmarks were only lightly put on, as trace, to facilitate the application of paint, or to aid the adhesion of gold foil. Passing this door one can enter the bath. The covered water canal runs through its middle and empties towards the Apadana. There are remnants of the red cement floor which covered the bath originally. At the gate to the bath chamber stands a beardless youth, most likely a eunuch, with a bottle of oil and a towel. (This is the only image of anybody without beard in Persepolis. There are no women represented.) There are two small rooms on either side of the Tachara, guarded by the king, who prevents a monster, of composite parts of "evil" animals including a scorpion tail, from entering. These rooms were possibly used for the ritual cohabitation, a yearly duty of the Mesopotamian kings to assure fertility. Whatever the ceremony was which this room was used for, it served the resurgence of the bull zodiac above the horizon 40 days after the New Year. The door lintel shows the king with his dagger drawn, in his arms a limpid lion, lifted off the ground (and the bull) permitting the bull to rise and the year to continue. On the highest (royal) level there is a secluded court, surrounded by the palaces of the different kings. The portico of the Tachara palace opens onto this court. Both sides of the portico are flanked by high corner stones with trilingual inscriptions. A curious feature is the inscription on the windows of the Tachara, which reads: "Stone window frame, made in the house of Darius the King." Xerxes' Private Palace (Hadish) An unfinished palace of Artaxerxes III lies across this courtyard to the south, and to the east of this, on the highest part of the platform and, like all the palaces, standing on its own terrace, is the main hall of the Hadish (literally, 'a Dwelling place'), Xerxes' Private Palace which can be reached by a staircase from the courtyard. The central hall of the Hadish with its 36 columns, is surrounded by small chambers on the cast and west, and has five doorways whose portals depict Xerxes entering or leaving the palace, accompanied by attendants. Not all the columns in the palaces were of stone; where it was possible to find tree trunks tall and strong enough, columns were made of these, standing on stone bases. The trunks themselves would be covered with painted plaster or gold leaf. These, together with the sunbaked mud-brick walls, roof beams and their mud-straw covering, have all disappeared with time, leaving only the stone elements of the construction. South of the Hadish is a series of smaller, columned apartments of sun-dried brick which have been described as the Queen's apartments, but which were more likely to have been warehouses and stores for the Treasury. There are two unexcavated mounds, one east of the Hadish and the other east of the Tachara, both of which await full explanation. Xerxes' Hall of Audience (Taipylon or Central Palace) North of the Hadish is the Taipylon, the small Central Palace with its three entrances. The bas-reliefs on the main double staircase on the north depict Persian and Median guards with, on the inner surfaces, still other attractive reliefs of Median courtiers and nobles on their way to a banquet. There was another staircase on the south side of the palace, now moved to the Tehran Museum. On the portal of the eastern doorway Darius is shown on his throne, supported by representatives of 28 countries. Behind him stands the crown prince. Xerxes, his head at the same level with his father, far above the surroundings. Both are beneath a canopy adorned with the symbol of god, bulls and lions running in two tiers in opposite directions and many tassels. Both the king and the crown prince hold fertility symbols (palmette) in their hands. The subject nations supporting the throne can be well studied. (The wisdom of Darius to select a successor during his life time was not followed by later kings). Xerxes had many wives and did not select the most able successor. The conditions of harem life with its social pressures increased the influence of intriguers and the eunuchs, especially - since they had the best access to the future kings and their mothers. Fratricide, murder and exile created great confusion. At the time of Alexander's conquest no direct descendants of Darius in the main line remained. This palace is in the center of Persepolis. It permitted the king to meet his nobles, unnoticed from the outside. Here all major political decisions were made by a small group. The royal messengers and controllers were received, victorious generals honored. The political decisions for the next year were made by the select few. The crown prince has to be a witness to this, to preserve and guarantee continuity in case of the king's death. (The crown prince is represented only once more in Persepolis - in the Treasury scene where the king receives the financial report. He is not shown on any ceremonial functions, as for instance in the same scene at the Hundred Column Palace. Nobles entered here from the Apadana courtyard over the staircase, one side Medes, the other Persians. Again they walk side by side, chatting, holding hands, smelling flowers. The heads arc always at the same level indicating equal social stature. Two Persian masters of ceremony relaxed but stern, with their long staffs of office, wait for the procession to begin at the foot of the stairs. The front panel of the staircase shows again the usual New Year's symbols, the lion and the bull. The fact that both Xerxes' Hall of Audience and his Private Palace suffered heavily in the final fire has led some authorities to believe that Alexander started the conflagration in revenge for Xerxes' destruction of the Acropolis in Athens. Further excavation works revealed a palace of Artaxerxes III constructed on top of another of Artaxerxes I in the southern corner of the platform, practically completely destroyed by fire. Hundred Column Palace Largest of all the palaces - 70x70 m - is the Hall of One Hundred Columns, to the north-east of the Tripylon, covered with some 3 m. of soil and cedar ash when it was first Partly excavated by Motamed-al Dowleh Farhad Mirza, Governor-general of Fars, in 1878. Iranian archaeologists completed the excavation in 1940. Here only the column bases remain, badly scorched and damaged by the fire. The Hundred Column Palace was used for the reception of the Subject Nations and the collection of their tribute. The delegations waited in the small 4-column palace opposite the main court. They entered the Hundred Column Palace from the north between two large bull figures carrying the portico. The gate shows rows upon rows of soldiers, indicating the military might of the king, which protects them from enemies and guarantees their peace, as well as controls their spirit of independence. The king is carried upon the power of the army. He sits surrounded by incense burners, accompanied by his successor and receives the report of the chief of the treasury, a Mede. The gifts were received by the king, appreciated, the delegations admonished or lauded. Petitions, handed in before the reception, were answered. Before the next delegation arrived, the gifts were removed through the southern gate to the stores of the Treasury. The southern gate was never seen by the delegations and shows an entirely different relief. Here the king is supported by the subject nations. This conveys the message lo the court officials, that whatever is carried through this gate is the tax extracted from these subject nations, whose strength has to be preserved to support the monarchy. The delegations returned the way they came or registered at a building at the edge of the platform and the mountain in the extreme north-east. The royal archives of 3500 cuneiform clay tablets, including pay lists, were found in the vicinity. The Museum The Museum is reached through the southern gate of the Hundred Column Palace. It is not clear what the original structure was. The elaborate door carvings showing the king fighting "evil" suggest that it was of great importance, either as main administrative office or as the palace of the Queen - who would therefore be on the same low level as all the other "treasures"of the king. The size of the building, compared to the size of the "Harem", suggests that the female retinue probably lived outside in the tent camp and that this indeed was an administrative structure. The main room of the Museum contains the Achaemenian artifacts from Persepolis. A stone foundation tablet is the central display. There are singed remnants of cloth, parts of cedar wood, golden nails from the doors, beads, alabaster trays and vessels and many other noteworthy artifacts. One display shows the bronze trumpets. Comparing the actual lance and arrowtips as well as the horsebits and bridles with their counterparts in the stone carvings and one will notice the amazing accuracy of the masons' work. Underneath the right window in the posterior wall is a delicately etched figure of a Sassanian king on his horse. The entire picture is about 20 cm. by l 5 cm. Artful mortars of great variety are evident, used for the preparation of Haoma but nothing one would find in a place that was really "lived in". The room to the right contains artifacts of prehistoric times from a tepe (mound) near Persepolis; the room at the left, Sassanian and early Islamic pottery and artifacts from nearby Istakhr. The Treasury East of the Museum, at the foot of the mountain face, is a self-contained complex of halls covering over 10,000 square m., including two large halls whose roofs were supported respectively by 100 and 99 wooden columns, and which is believed to have been the Treasury begun by Dariush. Stone and clay tablets in Akkadian and Elamites found here give details of exact wages in cash and in kind, paid to the men who built Persepolis, proving that this gigantic undertaking was constructed by free, paid labour, in contrast to contemporary monumental buildings in other countries where slave labour was the rule. According to Plutarch, Alexander the Great required 10,000 mules and 5,000 camels to carry the treasures of Persepolis to Ecbatana. The better preserved of two identical bas-reliefs found on the east and south porches of the Treasury is now in the Tehran Museum and shows Dariush on his throne with Xerxes and Persian nobles and attendants standing behind, and a Median official, probably the Chiliarch, the head of the Treasury who was also the Commander of the Army, standing with one hand raised to his mouth in a gesture of respect. Two elaborate incense burners stand between the official and the king. Between the Hundred Column Palace and the mountains are buildings of sun-baked bricks forming the royal stables, guard room and domestic quarters- probably some 3,000 soldiers were garrisoned in Persepolis. Further north a 32-columned building with a columned porch faces the courtyard of the Treasury; other buildings in the extreme north-eastern corner included the royal chancellery and accounts offices where 30,000 tablets in Elamite were found. Excavations and restoration still continue on this extraordinary site. Tombs of Artaxerxes II, III and Dariush III On the slopes of Kuh-e Rahmat from the south-eastern corner of the Treasury, passing the remains of guard houses and a square well, are the rock-cut tombs tentatively ascribed to Artaxerxes II (405 to 361 BC), and further south to Artaxerxes III (361 to 338 BC) both are empty save for the burial troughs cut into the rock. As at Naqsh-e Rustam, the kings shown worshiping before a fire altar, but on the southern tomb the small figures supporting the king's platform are each labeled. A track leads south over the mountain to a third rock-cut tomb that was never finished. It can be easily approached from the exterior of the platform, going south along the track from which one can see the immense size of the tettace. In the middle of this southern wall is an important trilingual inscription of Dariush the Great, unique in that the three versions are not exact translations but each gives some additional information. Together they assert that Darius, who gives his lineage and lists his possessions, built the foundations of Persepolis upon a hitherto unoccupied site. Past the new excavations to the south-west and then crossing a small stream closer to the cliffs, in an angle of the rock, hidden behind a tumble of rocks and young trees, is the unfinished tomb which is believed was intended to house the last of the Achaemenians, Dariush III Codamanus. The palaces under excavation on the plain below the terrace include one with inscriptions of Xerxes l, a temple, and other buildings of various dates. But Mr. Tadjvidi of the Iranian Archaeological Service has simultaneously parried out important work on the fortified walls that climb the mountain slopes to the east of the terrace, revealing many details of the original mud-brick construction and finding a significant new hoard of late Achaemenian seal impressions. The remains of several early Achaemenian palaces have been found in the nearby plain. In addition, the nucleus of the so-called Fratadara palace to the north-west of the platform, on the left of the Isfahan road, originally identified by Professor Herzfeld as that of a post-Achaemenian princeling 250 BC., has been re-excavated. Work has disclosed a probably early Achaemenian palace with brick doors and walls which were re-used at the later date. The supposed base of a fire altar, a few foundations and column bases and the standing sides of a stone window are all that remains of the later palace. On the window are two badly weathered reliefs, one showing a man with both hands raised (one holding a barsom), and the other a female figure. On the slopes of the mountain opposite this point is a quarry where an incomplete bull capital still stands in situ.

Ruins of Persepolis, the Achaemenian period Build around 500 B.C. Tomb of Cyrus II The Great, the Achaemenian period Build around 550 B.C. Inside the tomb there is a written script of Cyrus's words declaring that all people of all race and background are equal and have the same right to live and pursue individual interests. Some stone carving in Persepolis Another stone carving in Persepolis Another stone carving in Persepolis Dusk over Persepolis